Continuous Measurement of Lactate Concentration in Human Subjects through Direct Electron Transfer from Enzymes to Microneedle Electrodes

Microneedle biosensors modified with direct electron transfer enzymes were used to continuously monitor lactate levels in human interstitial fluid. The device was validated in a clinical study where lactate levels were altered through exercise. It operates at low voltage and correlates well with blood lactate concentrations, demonstrating potential for non-invasive lactate monitoring.